The following are the sources of the report “Borders of (In)Humanity”. You can download the full report as PDF on our website.
[1] The total for the whole Mediterranean is even higher, at over 31,000, see: International Organization for Migration [IOM]. Missing Migrant Project. Mediterranean. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://missingmigrants.iom.int/region/mediterranean
[2] IOM (2014, 31 October). IOM Applauds Italy’s Life-Saving Mare Nostrum Operation: “Not a Migrant Pull Factor”. Retrieved on 25 March from https://www.iom.int/news/iom-applauds-italys-life-saving-mare-nostrum-operation-not-migrant-pull-factor
[3] Sea-Watch (2024). Mare solidale: Ein EU-Rettungsprogramm für das zentrale Mittelmeer. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/2024-seawatch_adv-mare_solidale-DE.pdf; Marcus Engler (2017, 28 June): Libyen – ein schwieriger Partner der europäischen Migrationspolitik. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung [bpb]. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.bpb.de/themen/migration-integration/kurzdossiers/250481/libyen-ein-schwieriger-partner-der-europaeischen-migrationspolitik/
[4] SOS Humanity. Testify. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/testify/
[5] See Medecins Sans Frontieres [MSF] (2024). DEATH, DESPAIR AND DESTITUTION: THE HUMAN COSTS OF THE EU’S MIGRATION POLICIES. Retrieved on 14 March 2025 from https://www.aerzte-ohne-grenzen.de/sites/default/files/2024-02/eu-migrationsbericht-2024-07–komprimiert.pdf;
Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking. Retrieved on 14 March 2025 from https://statetrafficking.net/StateTrafficking_EN_21012025_light.pdf;
World Organisation Against Torture [OMCT] (2021). The Torture Roads. The Cycle of Abuse against People on the Move in Africa. Retrieved on 14 March 2025 from https://www.omct.org/site-resources/files/The-Torture-Roads.pdf
[6] See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2015). Combating violence against migrants. Retrieved on 14 March 2025 from https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/UNODC_Combating_Violence_against_Migrants.pdf.
[7] See for comparison: Human Rights Watch [HRW]. Our Research Methodology. How We Conduct Interviews with Victims/ Witnesses. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/our-research-methodology#5;
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR]. Manual on Human Rights Monitoring. Chapter 14: Protection of victims, witnesses and other cooperating persons. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/Chapter14-56pp.pdf
[8] In this we follow OHCHR’s Manual on Human Rights Monitoring, which speaks specifically about interviewing refugees and/or survivors of trauma: OHCHR. Manual on Human Rights Monitoring. Chapter 11: Interviewing
[9] Here we draw on organisations such as Amnesty International, who write: “Content that reduces people to one-dimensional portrayals to secure sympathy, rather than as multi-faceted, relatable individuals with agency, risks fetishizing or dehumanizing the people we want to support.”. Amnesty International (2019, 20 January). Applying Amnesty International values: Living guidelines for ethical and respectful communications. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/org10/0572/2019/en/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
[10] SOS Humanity. Stories of refugees. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/testify/testimonies-refugees/
[11] IOM. Missing Migrants Project (2022). Annual Regional Overview. Retrieved on 25 March from https://missingmigrants.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl601/files/publication/file/IOM_MissingMigrantsProject_Europe 2022.pdf
[12] SOS Humanity (2024, 1 December). Tatort Mittelmeer 2024. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/events-and-campaigns/tatort-mittelmeer-24/
[13] SOS Humanity. Stories of refugees.
[14] SOS Humanity (2024). Humanity Overboard. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/2024_Report_Humanity-Overboard_online.pdf
[15] The remaining 9% departed from Lebanon and were rescued by the crew of Humanity 1’s first rescue operation (R01), but no testimonies were given by this group.
[16] In the survey analysed in ‘Humanity Overboard’, almost half (44%) attempted the crossing multiple times.
[17] See: Methodology – Safeguarding policy
[18] This survivor specifically requested not to use a pseudonym.
[19] This chapter is based on SOS Humanity’s position paper “End the EU’s Externalisation Policy” (2024, December). Retrieved on 25 March from https://sos-humanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024_EN_Position-Paper_Externalisation.pdf
[20] Since all EU states have ratified the 1951 Geneva Convention, which regulates the rights of refugees, the EU and its member states have the responsibility to protect people on the move and guarantee them access to asylum procedures. The EU’s obligation is also enshrined in the Charter of Fundamental Rights.
[21] In the following paper the UNHCR outlines the distinct measures that states take to avoid their responsibility to provide refugees with international protection. It defines externalisation of international protection as “measures taken by States – unilaterally or in cooperation with other states – which are implemented to have effects outside their own territories, and which directly or indirectly prevent asylum-seekers and refugees from reaching a particular ‘destination’ country or region, and/or from being able to claim or enjoy protection there. Such measures constitute externalization where they involve inadequate safeguards to guarantee international protection as well as shifting responsibility for identifying or meeting international protection needs to another State or leaving such needs unmet; making such measures unlawful.” United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR] (2021, 28 May): UNHCR Note on the “Externalization” of International Protection, p. 1, paragraph 5. Retrieved on 15 March 2025 from https://www.refworld.org/policy/legalguidance/unhcr/2021/en/121534
[22] Miriam Laux (2021, 16 April). The evolution of the EU’s naval operations in the Central Mediterranean: A gradual shift away from search and rescue. Heinrich Böll Stiftung Washington, DC. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://us.boell.org/en/2021/04/16/evolution-eus-naval-operations-central-mediterranean-gradual-shift-away-search-and
[23] “In 2024, the EU announced new migration partnerships with Egypt and Mauritania and increased border management funding to both countries as well as to Lebanon, following a 2023 deal with Tunisia and ongoing migration control support to Libyan and Moroccan authorities, without effective human rights guarantees.” HRW (2025, 25 January): World Report 2025, p. 163. Retrieved on 15 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2025/01/World%20Report%202025.pdf
[24] European Union (2023). EU comprehensive partnership package with Tunisia. Retrieved on 11 April 2025 from EU_Tunisia_Partnership.pdf
[25] Since 2017, Italy has maintained a bilateral agreement with Libya, which has helped Libya intercept and return thousands of migrants crossing the Mediterranean to Italy through financial and technical support.
Odysseus Network (2017). Memorandum of understanding on cooperation in the fields of development, the fight against illegal immigration, human trafficking and fuel smuggling and on reinforcing the security of borders between the State of Libya and the Italian Republic. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://eumigrationlawblog.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/MEMORANDUM_translation_finalversion.doc.pdf
HRW (2023, 1 February). Italy Reups Funding to Force Migrants Back to Libya. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/01/italy-reups-funding-force-migrants-back-libya
[26] So far, only three transfers of protection seekers were made to Albania. Each time Italian courts found the detention of the survivors brought to Albania to be unlawful and ordered their transfer to Italy. The agreement is currently on hold.Elona Elezi (2025, 24 February). Has Italy’s Albania migrant deal completely failed? Deutsche Welle. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.dw.com/en/has-italys-albania-migrant-deal-completely-failed/a-71694722
[27] HRW (2024, 8 July). NGOs Joint Statement: The future EU must uphold the right to asylum in Europe. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/09/ngos-joint-statementthe-future-eu-must-uphold-right-asylum-europe
[28] UNHCR (2021): Note on the “Externalization” of International Protection, p. 1, paragraph 4.
[29] See: European Union Agency For Fundamental Rights [FRA] (2024, 30 July). Guidance on investigating alleged ill-treatment at borders. Retrieved on 26 January 2025 from https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2024/guidance-investigating-alleged-ill-treatment-borders;
European Ombudsman (2024, 5 December). Conclusions of the European Ombudsman on EU search and rescue following her inquiry into how the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) complies with its fundamental rights obligations in the context of its maritime surveillance activities, in particular the Adriana shipwreck. Retrieved on 26 January from https://www.ombudsman.europa.eu/en/doc/correspondence/en/182671
[30] IMO (2004). Resolution MSC.167(78), Guidelines on the Treatment of Persons Rescued At Sea. Retrieved on 26 January 2025 from https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/imo/2004/en/32272?prevDestination=search
[31] UNHCR. Legal Brief on International Law and Rescue at Sea. Retrieved on 26 January 2025 from https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/487b47f12.pdf
[32] SOS Humanity (2024). End the EU’s Externalisation Policy.
[33] HRW (2025, 16 January). EU: Migration Policies Fuel Abuses Across Borders. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/01/16/eu-migration-policies-fuel-abuses-across-borders?utm
[34] The EU significantly contributed to Libya’s declaration of a Libyan SAR zone in 2018 and in Tunisia in 2024. EU. Action Document for EU Support to Border Management Institutions in Libya and Tunisia. Retrieved on 19 March 2025 from https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-12/C_2021_9615_F1_ANNEX_EN_V3_P1_1639231%20Annex%20II%20BM%20LY%20TU.PDF
[35] Civil Court of Crotone (2024, 26 June). Court Judgement no. 348/2024. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.asgi.it/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/2024_06_26_Court-of-Crotone_final-decision_ITA_geschwarzt.pdf
Supreme Court of Cassation (2024, February): Court judgement no. 4557. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.meltingpot.org/download/500149/?tmstv=1709120655
[36] EU Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations (2023, 6 February). Commissioner Olivér Várhelyi attends the handover ceremony of EU-financed Search and Rescue vessels to Libya. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/commissioner-oliver-varhelyi-attends-handover-ceremony-eu-financed-search-and-rescue-vessels-libya-2023-02-06_en
[37] The EU and its member states support training programmes for the Tunisian police, supply equipment for the Tunisian Coast Guard, and data collection and management. Both the German Federal Police and Germany’s international development agency, the Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), are directly involved in cooperation programmes to support the Tunisian security forces and Coast Guard in border surveillance and migration control.
German Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community [BMI] (2023, 19 June). Strengthening cooperation on migration and security issues. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://www.bmi.bund.de/SharedDocs/kurzmeldungen/DE/2023/06/reise-tunesien.html
German Bundestag (2024, 5 December). Printed matter 20/9753. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://dserver.bundestag.de/btd/20/097/2009753.pdf
[38] The number has been calculated on basis of: UNHCR. Libya. Retrieved on 10 March 2025 from https://data.unhcr.org/en/country/lby and IOM Libya. Maritime Update, X. Retrieved on 10 March 2025 from https://x.com/IOM_Libya/status/1899044074541220296.
[39] Alarm Phone (2024, June). Interrupted at sea. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://alarmphone.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Interrupted-sea-EN.pdf.
[40] Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking – Expulsion and sale of migrants from Tunisia to Libya. Retrieved on 25 March 2025 from https://statetrafficking.net/StateTrafficking_EN_21012025_light.pdf
[41] €206.5 million for Tunisia and €84 million for Libya. The figure was calculated in-house and relates to the following projects and funding instruments: SIBMMIL (2017-2024), EUTF (2015-2024), BMP Maghreb (2018-2024), NDICI (2021-2027), Strengthening the Tunisian Coast Guard Training Pillar (2023-2026), MoU between EU and Tunisia (since 2023).
[42] According to a calculation by Sea-Watch, an EU search and rescue programme would cost 240 million Euros. Sea-Watch (2024). Mare solidale: Ein EU-Rettungsprogramm für das zentrale Mittelmeer.
[43] EU Directorate-General for Neighbourhood and Enlargement Negotiations (2023, 6 February). Commissioner Olivér Várhelyi attends the handover ceremony of EU-financed Search and Rescue vessels to Libya.
[44] IOM. Missing Migrant Project. Mediterranean.
[45] HRW (2024, 3 October). Tunisia: Authorities Undermine Election Integrity. Retrieved on 10 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/10/03/tunisia-authorities-undermine-election-integrity
[46] Nesrine Mailk (2023, 13 March). As the disturbing scenes in Tunisia show, anti-migrant sentiments have gone global. The Guardian. Retrieved on 26 March 2025 from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/mar/13/tunisia-anti-migrant-sentiments-president-saied
[47] Amnesty International (2025, 6 February). Tunisia: Authorities step up crackdown on LGBTI individuals with wave of arrests. Retrieved on 26 March 2025 from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/02/tunisia-authorities-step-up-crackdown-on-lgbti-individuals-with-wave-of-arrests/
[48] UN (2024, 14 October): Tunisia: UN experts concerned over safety of migrants, refugees and victims of trafficking. Retrieved on 26 March 2025 from https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/10/tunisia-un-experts-concerned-over-safety-migrants-refugees-and-victims
[49] HRW (2025). World Report 2025: Tunisia. Retrieved on 10 March 2025 from https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/tunisia
[50] SOS Humanity (2023, 20 July). Survivors aboard Humanity 1 report grave human rights abuses in Tunisia as EU pushes deal with Tunisia on migration. Retrieved on 10 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/our-mission/change/tunisia/
[51] SOS Humanity (2024, 10 April). Joint Statement of humanitarian organisations: Tunisia not a place of safety! Retrieved on 26 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/press/tunisia-no-place-of-safety/
[52] UNHCR (2023). West and Central Mediterranean situation. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://reporting.unhcr.org/operational/situations/west-and-central-mediterranean-situation
[53] UNHCR (2024, 30 December). Italy weekly snapshot. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/113474
[54] Lighthouse Reports (2024, 21 May). Desert Dumps. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.lighthousereports.com/investigation/desert-dumps/
[55] The systemic nature of this sexualised violence during ‘desert dumps’ is confirmed by other reports. See Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking, p. 26: “On the buses, the Garde Nationale [Tunisian Coast Guard] search our children and women, they touch women. They touch our private parts, they rape women in front of men on the buses”
[56] HRW (2025). World Report 2025: Tunisia.
[57] Council of the EU (2023, 15 December). WK 16821/2023 INIT. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.statewatch.org/media/4205/eu-council-mocadem-action-file-16821-23.pdf
[58] The Guardian (2024, 19 September). The brutal truth behind Italy’s migrant reduction: beatings and rape by EU-funded forces in Tunisia. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/sep/19/italy-migrant-reduction-investigation-rape-killing-tunisia-eu-money-keir-starmer-security-forces-smugglers
[59] ECRE (2024, 29 March). EU External Partners: Tunisian Security Forces to Receive EU Funding Despite Involvement in Human Rights Abuses. Retrieved on 27 March from https://ecre.org/eu-external-partners-tunisian-security-forces-to-receive-eu-funding-despite-involvement-in-human-rights-abuses-dozens-of-migrant-bodies-found-in-mass-grave-in-libya-parliament/
[60] See Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking, p. 28: “In several cases, it is the Garde Nationale that take prisoners directly to the Libyan border and negotiate the deal.”
[61] Mark Townsend (2025, 24 January). Europe overhauls funding to Tunisia after Guardian exposes migrant abuse. The Guardian. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/jan/24/eu-human-rights-tunisia-migrant-security-forces-migration
[62] Mark Townsend (2024, 11 October). EU unable to retrieve €150m paid to Tunisia despite links to rights violations. The Guardian. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2024/oct/11/eu-funding-migrant-deal-tunisia-human-rights-violations-asylum-icc
[63] Reuters (2020, 8 July). Libyan migrant centres are like concentration camps, pope says. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.reuters.com/article/world/libyan-migrant-centres-are-like-concentration-camps-pope-says-idUSKBN2491L9/
[64] Deutsche Welle (2017, 2 January). Refugee mistreatment in Libyan trafficking camps. Retrieved on 27 March from https://www.dw.com/en/libyan-trafficking-camps-are-hell-for-refugees-diplomats-say/a-37318459
[65] OHCHR (2021, 4 October). Libya: Evidence crimes against humanity and war crimes committed since 2016, UN report finds. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/10/libya-evidence-crimes-against-humanity-and-war-crimes-committed-2016-un
[66] IOM (2024, 22 March). Discovery of Mass Grave with 65 Migrants’ Bodies in Libya. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.iom.int/news/discovery-mass-grave-65-migrants-bodies-libya
[67] IOM (2025, 10 February). IOM Deeply Alarmed by Mass Graves Found in Libya, Urges Action. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.iom.int/news/iom-deeply-alarmed-mass-graves-found-libya-urges-action
[68] SOS Humanity (2025, 14 February). Statement: EU-Libya migration funding. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/our-mission/change/statement-libya/
[69] OHCHR (2004). Arab Charter on Human Rights. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/551368?v=pdf
[70] Amnesty International (2024). Libya 2023. Amnesty International Report 2023/24. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/north-africa/libya/report-libya/
[71] Refugees in Libya. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.refugeesinlibya.org/
[72] SOS Humanity (2022, 6 July). Libya is not a safe place. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/our-mission/change/libya-is-not-a-safe-place/
[73] UNHCR (2024, 30 December). Italy weekly snapshot.
[74] See: Ali Ibrahim (2019, 21 August). As an LGBT refugee, Europe’s deal with Libya has left me fearing for my life. The New Statesman. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.newstatesman.com/world/middle-east/2019/08/as-an-lgbt-refugee-europes-deal-with-libya-has-left-me-fearing-for-my-life
[75] In some cases, people on the move have been trafficked across the border from Tunisia, with the complicity of state authorities. See: Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking.
[76] Sou-Jie van Brunnersum (2024, 30 September). ‘Migrants for sale’: An investigation into the clandestine migrant smuggling economy on the Mediterranean route – Part 1. Info Migrants. Retrieved on 14 April 2025 from https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/58308/migrants-for-sale-an-investigation-into-the-clandestine-migrant-smuggling-economy-on-the-mediterranean-route–part-1
[77] UNHRC (2023, 3 March). Report of the Independent Fact-Finding Mission on Libya. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/hrbodies/hrcouncil/sessions-regular/session50/A_HRC_52_83_AdvanceEditedVersion-EN.docx
[78] European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights [ECCHR]. Severe deprivation of liberty in the Mediterranean Sea and in Libya – The ICC must investigate. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.ecchr.eu/en/case/interceptions-of-migrants-and-refugees-at-sea/
[79] Terre Solidaire (2024). Spotlights on European and French Funding in Tunisia. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://ccfd-terresolidaire.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/ccfd-terresolidaire.org-spotlights-on-european-and-french-funding-in-tunisia-may-2024.pdf;
European Union [EU]. Support to Integrated border and migration management in Libya – First phase. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://trust-fund-for-africa.europa.eu/our-programmes/support-integrated-border-and-migration-management-libya-first-phase_en;
- Support to Integrated border and migration management in Libya – Second phase. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://trust-fund-for-africa.europa.eu/our-programmes/support-integrated-border-and-migration-management-libya-second-phase_en
[80] EU Directorate-General for Enlargement and Eastern Neighbourhood. Libya. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/european-neighbourhood-policy/countries-region/libya_en
[81] Jennifer Rankin (2024). EU fund to stem migration from Africa ‘fails to address risks’ – watchdog. The Guardian. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/25/eu-fund-to-stem-migration-africa-europe-risks-european-court-of-auditors
[82] Statewatch (2025, 31 January). EU: Outsourcing borders and migration control: no parliamentary scrutiny in sight. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.statewatch.org/news/2025/january/eu-outsourcing-borders-and-migration-control-no-parliamentary-scrutiny-in-sight/
[83] Council of the EU (2023): Council Decision 2023/1305 on the European Union Integrated Border Management Assistance Mission in Libya (EUBAM Libya). Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32023D1305
[84] International Criminal Court [ICC] (2025, 22 January). Situation in Libya: ICC arrest warrant against Osama Elmasry Njeem for alleged crimes against humanity and war crimes. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-libya-icc-arrest-warrant-against-osama-elmasry-njeem-alleged-crimes-against-humanity
[85] Al Jazeera (2025, 13 February). ‘I saw him kill people:’ Libya and Italy’s shadowy migrant deals. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2025/2/13/i-saw-him-kill-people-libya-and-italys-shadowy-migrant-deals
[86] Romana Rubeo / Ramzy Baroud (2019, 7 November). Italy’s dubious policies in Libya. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/11/7/italys-dubious-policies-in-libya
[87] The survivor, who was detained in one of Dabbashi’s warehouses, claimed the latter had “at least 5, 000 drowned persons on his hands” and was involved in the trafficking of drugs and human organs. A recent human trafficking report described these warehouses thus: “Women, pregnant women, children and men were reported to be held in places that hold 160 people to 1,000 people. The detainees are made up of all African nationalities and were waiting to cross the Mediterranean Sea […] Rape […] seems to be more common in the places under the control of El Amu [al-Dabbashi]”
[88] Maggie Michael (2017, 29 August). Backed by Italy, Libya enlists militias to stop migrants. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://apnews.com/article/9e808574a4d04eb38fa8c688d110a23d ;
Francesa Mannocchi (2017, 26 August). Italy accused of bribing Libyan militias to stop migrants reaching Europe. Middle East Eye. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/italy-accused-bribing-libyan-militias-stop-migrants-reaching-europe
[89] European Parliament and Council (2014): Regulation No. 656/2014, Article 9. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32014R0656
[90] IOM. SOLAS. Chapter 5 / Regulation 33
[91] Sea-Watch (2017, 7 November): Clarification on the incident of November 6th. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sea-watch.org/en/clarification-on-the-incident-of-november-6th/
[92] “Some shipwrecks are caused by Tunisian Coast Guard boats in order to block boats carrying migrants”: Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking, p. 18
[93] This includes the Tunisian Coast Guard: “On the buses, the Garde Nationale search our children and women, they touch women. They touch our private parts, they rape women in front of men on the buses.” Researchers X (2025). State Trafficking, p. 26
[94] On 7 July 2023, the so-called Libyan Coast Guard fired gunshots near rescued people and the humanitarian crew of Ocean Viking. Claire Juchat / SOS Mediterranee (2023, 13 July). Detention of Ocean Viking five days after EU-sponsored Libyan Coastguard fires shots near humanitarian workers. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.sosmediterranee.org/statement-detention-of-ocean-viking-five-days-after-eu-sponsored-libyan-coastguard-fires-shots-near-humanitarian-workers/
[95] The Tunisian Coast Guard has also been accused of ramming boats until they capsize, causing dozens to drown. See Emma Wallis (2024, 22 November). Did the Tunisian coast guard ram a migrant boat and cause 52 people to drown. Info Migrants. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/61341/did-the-tunisian-coast-guard-ram-a-migrant-boat-and-cause-52-people-to-drown
[96] Charlotte Oberti (2023, 3 March). Shipwreck in Italy: ‘The last tragedy of this kind dates back to 2013’. Info Migrants. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/47200/shipwreck-in-italy-the-last-tragedy-of-this-kind-dates-back-to-2013
[97] According to testimonies of the survivors, the Hellenic coast guard towed the boat causing it to capsize.
SOS Humanity (2023, 20 June). Joint Statement. Up to 600 people drown off Pylos, Greece. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/our-mission/change/joint-statement-pylos-shipwreck/
See also: International Ombudsman Institute [IOI] (2025, 3 February): The Ombudsman’s Report on the Pylos Shipwreck. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.theioi.org/downloads/4chl4/030225-PR-PYLOS-REPORT.pdf
[98] Even commercial European ships are sometimes involved in or carry out push-backs, such as the Greek-owned oil tanker P Long Beach, which illegally returned survivors to Libya on 25th May 2023. See SOS Humanity (2023, 26 May). Rescue Report No. 5. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/our-mission/saving-lives/rescue-report/rescue-report-no-5/
[99] UNHCR. Europe Sea Arrivals. Retrieved on 18 March 2025 from https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/europe-sea-arrivals
[100] SOS Humanity (2024). Humanity Overboard. Retrieved on 18 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/2024_Report_Humanity-Overboard_online.pdf
[101] Statewatch (2025, 30 January). Serial shipwrecks on the Libyan route: the price of deterrence. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://www.statewatch.org/analyses/2025/serial-shipwrecks-on-the-libyan-route-the-price-of-deterrence/#:~:text=From%202022%20to%20date%2C%20Italy,based%20Government%20of%20National%20Unity.
[102] Jacob Borg / James Cummings (2025, 13 March): Malta ‘refuses’ to cooperate in migrant rescue missions – leaked EU memo. Times Malta. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://timesofmalta.com/article/malta-refuses-cooperate-migrant-rescue-missions-leaked-eu-memo.1106464
[103] Numerous court rules prove that the Libyan Rescue Coordination Center does not coordinate rescues in line with international law. See: Civil Court of Crotone (2024, 26 June). Court judgement no. 348/2024; Supreme Court of Cassation (2024, February). Court judgement no. 4557.
[104] Statewatch (2025, 30 January). Serial shipwrecks on the Libyan route: the price of deterrence.
[105] SOS Humanity (2024). Humanity Overboard, p.19
[106] SOS Humanity (2024). Humanity Overboard, p. 14
[107] Since December 2022 the Italian authorities have systematically assigned distant ports in the north or east of Italy to SAR NGOs for the disembarkation of survivors. Due to the long journey times, this practice significantly reduces the time SAR NGOs can spend in the search and rescue area.
See SOS Humanity (2024, 1 February). Analysis of distant ports for rescue ships: one year of mission lost. Retrieved on 27 March 2025 from https://sos-humanity.org/en/press/analysis-of-distant-ports/
[108] IOM (2022). IAMSAR Manual, Volume I, Section 2.3.7.
